Journal Description
Metals
Metals
is an international, peer-reviewed, open access journal published monthly online by MDPI. The Portuguese Society of Materials (SPM), and the Spanish Materials Society (SOCIEMAT) are affiliated with Metals and their members receive a discount on the article processing charges.
- Open Access— free for readers, with article processing charges (APC) paid by authors or their institutions.
- High Visibility: indexed within Scopus, SCIE (Web of Science), Inspec, CAPlus / SciFinder, and other databases.
- Journal Rank: JCR - Q2 (Metallurgy & Metallurgical Engineering) / CiteScore - Q1 (Metals and Alloys)
- Rapid Publication: manuscripts are peer-reviewed and a first decision is provided to authors approximately 15 days after submission; acceptance to publication is undertaken in 2.7 days (median values for papers published in this journal in the second half of 2023).
- Recognition of Reviewers: reviewers who provide timely, thorough peer-review reports receive vouchers entitling them to a discount on the APC of their next publication in any MDPI journal, in appreciation of the work done.
- Companion journals for Metals include: Compounds and Alloys.
Impact Factor:
2.9 (2022);
5-Year Impact Factor:
2.9 (2022)
Latest Articles
Long-Term Oxidation Studies on Porous Stainless Steel 430L Substrate Relevant to Its Application in Metal-Supported SOFC
Metals 2024, 14(4), 475; https://doi.org/10.3390/met14040475 - 18 Apr 2024
Abstract
Metal-supported solid oxide fuel cells (MS-SOFCs) can be used in portable mobile power generators due to their excellent thermal cycling performance, low cost, and strong mechanical strength. The selection and lifetime of the support material are crucial factors that affect the cell’s performance
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Metal-supported solid oxide fuel cells (MS-SOFCs) can be used in portable mobile power generators due to their excellent thermal cycling performance, low cost, and strong mechanical strength. The selection and lifetime of the support material are crucial factors that affect the cell’s performance and long-term stability. The oxidizability of porous 430L stainless steel in a dry air atmosphere at 800 °C was systematically studied and reported for up to 1500 h. The aim was to investigate the lifetime of porous stainless steel as a support skeleton in a symmetric MS-SOFC. The substrates were characterized and analyzed using scanning electron microscopy, energy spectroscopy, and X-ray diffractometry after different periods of oxidation. The analysis indicated that the porous substrate’s surface oxides, under dry air conditions, consisted primarily of Fe2O3 and Cr2O3, with small amounts of Fe3O4 and MnCr2O4 spinel. The long-term oxidation process can be divided into two stages with distinct characteristics. However, the oxide flaking phenomenon occurred after 1500 h of exposure. The estimated service life of the stainless steel was consistent with the experimental results, which were around 1500 h. This estimation was based on the measured weight gain and thickness data.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Metallic Functional Materials)
Open AccessArticle
Comprehensive Unveiling of the Oxidation Resistance and Corrosion Protection of an Oxide Layer Formed on the Gd-Alloyed AZ80 Alloy Surface
by
Chunlong Cheng, Gaolin Zhou, Bo Qu, Liang Wang, Abdul Malik and Zheng Chen
Metals 2024, 14(4), 474; https://doi.org/10.3390/met14040474 (registering DOI) - 18 Apr 2024
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In our previous work, the effect of Gd alloying on the oxidation resistance of AZ80 alloy was revealed briefly. However, a comprehensive understanding of the oxidation and corrosion resistance of the oxide layer formed on the Gd alloying AZ80 alloy surface needs to
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In our previous work, the effect of Gd alloying on the oxidation resistance of AZ80 alloy was revealed briefly. However, a comprehensive understanding of the oxidation and corrosion resistance of the oxide layer formed on the Gd alloying AZ80 alloy surface needs to be developed. Thus, in this research, the high-temperature oxidation behaviors, oxidation products, and oxide layer characteristics of AZ80, AZ80-0.47Gd, and AZ80-0.75Gd (wt%) alloys were investigated at 420 °C. The corrosion protection of the oxide layer formed on the alloy surface was evaluated. The results showed that Gd alloying eliminated the content of the low melting point phase of β-Mg17Al12 and promoted the generation of a high melting point phase of Al2Gd. Gd2O3 appeared in the oxide layer and facilitated the propagation of homogeneous oxidation as well as densification of the oxide layer. In addition, the firm oxide layer showed characteristics of a blurred boundary with the magnesium matrix. After immersion of the oxide layer containing gadolinium oxide, the products of corrosion were massively nodulated, leading to the passivation of corrosion. This research provides new ideas for magnesium alloy protective layer preparation via a high-temperature oxidation technique.
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Open AccessEditorial
Microstructure and Properties in Metals and Alloys (Volume 2)
by
Andrea Di Schino and Claudio Testani
Metals 2024, 14(4), 473; https://doi.org/10.3390/met14040473 - 18 Apr 2024
Abstract
Microstructure design is key in targeting the desired material’s properties [...]
Full article
(This article belongs to the Topic Microstructure and Properties in Metals and Alloys, 2nd Volume)
Open AccessArticle
The Structure and Magnetic Properties of Sm2Fe17Cx Compounds Prepared from Ball-Milled Mixtures of Sm2Fe17 and Carbon Nanotubes or Graphite
by
Vladislav A. Mikheev, Igor G. Bordyuzhin, Mikhail V. Gorshenkov, Elena S. Savchenko, Irina V. Dorofievich and Igor V. Shchetinin
Metals 2024, 14(4), 472; https://doi.org/10.3390/met14040472 - 18 Apr 2024
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The processing route of Sm2Fe17 carbides is shorter than that of nitrides, which can potentially be used for cost-effective mid-performance magnets’ production. The magnetic properties of Sm2Fe17Cx compounds can be controlled at the annealing step,
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The processing route of Sm2Fe17 carbides is shorter than that of nitrides, which can potentially be used for cost-effective mid-performance magnets’ production. The magnetic properties of Sm2Fe17Cx compounds can be controlled at the annealing step, which allows them to be used for a variety of applications. In this work, X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis, Mössbauer spectroscopy, scanning and transmission electron microscopy (SEM, TEM) and vibrating sample magnetometry (VSM) were used for characterization of the structure and magnetic properties of Sm2Fe17Cx compounds. The powder samples were prepared by high-energy ball milling of Sm2Fe17 mixtures with carbon nanotubes (CNT) or graphite with subsequent annealing. The formation of Sm2Fe17Cx compounds after annealing was followed by the formation of α-Fe and amorphous Sm2O3. The hyperfine field values of Fe atoms of all the Sm2Fe17 lattice sites increased by 12% on average after annealing that was caused by carbon diffusion. The coercivity of the samples peaked after annealing at 375 °C. The samples with CNT demonstrated an increase of up to 14% in coercivity and 5% in specific remanence in the range of 250–375 °C annealing temperatures.
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Open AccessArticle
First Principles Study of the Effects of Si, P, and S on the ∑5 (210)[001] Grain Boundary of γ-Fe
by
Ying Xu, Weigang Cao, Mengzhe Huang and Fucheng Zhang
Metals 2024, 14(4), 471; https://doi.org/10.3390/met14040471 - 17 Apr 2024
Abstract
Solutes segregating at the grain boundary (GB) have a significant influence on the mechanical and chemical properties of steel. In this study, the segregation effects of Si, P, and S on γ-Fe ∑5 (210)[001] GB were systematically analyzed with solution energy,
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Solutes segregating at the grain boundary (GB) have a significant influence on the mechanical and chemical properties of steel. In this study, the segregation effects of Si, P, and S on γ-Fe ∑5 (210)[001] GB were systematically analyzed with solution energy, segregation energy, and tensile tests by using a first principles calculation. Si, P, and S are preferred to segregate at substitutional sites in the first layer near the GB. The variation in atomic configuration and electron distribution were investigated by the analysis of bond lengths, charge density, charge density difference, and density of states (DOS), which is caused by the atomic size and electronegativity of solute atoms. Through tensile tests, it was found that Si has a strengthening effect on GB, while P and S exhibit embrittlement effects at low concentration. As the concentration of solutes increase, the segregation sites of P are different from the others owing to the tendency to form Fe3P. The exhibited embrittlement effect is mitigated at first and then aggravated. However, in both cases Si and S show aggravating embrittlement effects on GB cohesion, while the effect of Si changes from strengthening to embrittlement. This work provides comprehensive insights into the effects of Si, P, and S, which will be a useful guidance in steel design.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Computation and Simulation on Metals)
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Open AccessArticle
Microstructure Evolution and Strengthening Mechanisms of Mg–Steel Welds Subjected to Multiple Microshot Peening Treatment
by
Jianghui Wang and Chuan Xu
Metals 2024, 14(4), 470; https://doi.org/10.3390/met14040470 - 17 Apr 2024
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A surface modification through multiple microshot peening (MSP) was performed on Mg–steel weldment. Application of MSP was found beneficial to the elimination of surface microdefects owing to severe plastic deformation induced by MSP. Moreover, MSP treatment transformed the residual tensile stress of the
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A surface modification through multiple microshot peening (MSP) was performed on Mg–steel weldment. Application of MSP was found beneficial to the elimination of surface microdefects owing to severe plastic deformation induced by MSP. Moreover, MSP treatment transformed the residual tensile stress of the weld surface into residual compressive stress, which was beneficial to inhibit the initiation and propagation of surface microdefects. Strain strengthening and grain refining were introduced into the shot peened joint, resulting in the notable increase in surface hardness and tensile strength. Compared with an untreated joint, the tensile strength of optimized Mg/steel weldment was markedly enhanced and raised 28% to 244 MPa, and fracture ultimately occurred in the Mg alloy base material. Moreover, the refinement of weld grain induced by MSP treatment was beneficial to strengthen the stress corrosion sensitivity of Mg/steel joints, while also promoting the formation of a denser Mg(OH)2 passivation film on the weld surface and enhancing the corrosion resistance of the joints.
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Open AccessArticle
Effect of Precipitated Particles on Austenite Grain Growth of Al- and Nb-Microalloyed 20MnCr Gear Steel
by
Yingqi Zhu, Shitao Fan, Xiuzhen Lian and Na Min
Metals 2024, 14(4), 469; https://doi.org/10.3390/met14040469 - 17 Apr 2024
Abstract
The paper deals with the effect of the morphology characteristics, grain size, and the volume fraction of AlN- and NbC-precipitated particles on the prior austenite grain growth behavior in the Al- and Nb-microalloying 20MnCr gear steel during pseudo-carburizing heat treatments. The results indicate
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The paper deals with the effect of the morphology characteristics, grain size, and the volume fraction of AlN- and NbC-precipitated particles on the prior austenite grain growth behavior in the Al- and Nb-microalloying 20MnCr gear steel during pseudo-carburizing heat treatments. The results indicate that the Nb addition in 20MnCr gear steel have a better effect on preventing austenite grain growth. The coarsening time after pseudo-carburizing in the Nb-microalloyed 20MnCr steel are improved by about 4 h compared with the Al-microalloyed steel. The precipitated particles coarsen and the number decreases with the pseudo-carburization temperature increasing, resulting in a reduction in the pinning pressure of the precipitated particles on the austenite grain boundaries. When the pseudo-carburization temperature reaches 1150 °C, the precipitated particles no longer have the ability to pin the austenite grain boundaries. In addition, the kinetics model for austenite grain growth under the process of the pinning and coarsening of the precipitated particles was established.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Microalloying in Ferrous and Non-ferrous Alloys)
Open AccessArticle
Corrosion Behavior of FeCrMnxAlCu High-Entropy Alloys in NaOH Solutions
by
Yang Yang, Junpeng Cui, Zhipeng Wang and Li Feng
Metals 2024, 14(4), 468; https://doi.org/10.3390/met14040468 - 17 Apr 2024
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FeCrMnxAlCu (x = 2.0, 1.5, 1.0, 0.5, and 0.0) high-entropy alloys (HEAs) were prepared using vacuum arc melting. The phase structure, microstructure, and element distribution of FeCrMnxAlCu (x = 2.0, 1.5, 1.0, 0.5, and 0.0) HEAs were analyzed using
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FeCrMnxAlCu (x = 2.0, 1.5, 1.0, 0.5, and 0.0) high-entropy alloys (HEAs) were prepared using vacuum arc melting. The phase structure, microstructure, and element distribution of FeCrMnxAlCu (x = 2.0, 1.5, 1.0, 0.5, and 0.0) HEAs were analyzed using X-ray diffraction, scanning electron microscopy, and energy-dispersive spectroscopy. The corrosion resistance of the alloy in a NaOH solution was evaluated using a potentiodynamic polarization curve, electrochemical impedance spectroscopy, an immersion test, WLI, and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy. The results showed that FeCrMnxAlCu HEAs are an FCC+BCC bi-phase mixed structure with typical dendrite and interdendrite structures. The corrosion test demonstrated that the HEAs presented a breakthrough characteristic of activation–passivation–passivation. With an increase in Mn content, the corrosion potential shifted first positively and then negatively, and the corrosion current first decreased and then increased. Among HEAs, the FeCrMn0.5AlCu HEA had the best electrochemical corrosion resistance. After corrosion, both oxide and hydroxide corrosion product films were formed on the surface, which reduced the ion diffusion rate, slowed down the corrosion process, and improved the corrosion resistance.
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Open AccessArticle
Mechanical Properties of Interfaces between Mg and SiC: An Ab Initio Study
by
Zhipeng Yao, Samaneh Nasiri, Mingjun Yang and Michael Zaiser
Metals 2024, 14(4), 467; https://doi.org/10.3390/met14040467 - 16 Apr 2024
Abstract
Covalently bonded particles may exhibit extremely high strength, but their performance in the reinforcement of metal alloys crucially depends on the properties of their interfaces with the embedding matrix. Here, density functional theory is used for investigating a range of interface configurations between
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Covalently bonded particles may exhibit extremely high strength, but their performance in the reinforcement of metal alloys crucially depends on the properties of their interfaces with the embedding matrix. Here, density functional theory is used for investigating a range of interface configurations between magnesium and silicon carbide in view of their mechanical properties. Interfaces are analyzed not only in terms of interface energy/work of separation but also in terms of the interfacial shear stresses required to induce interface-parallel displacements. These properties are studied for bilayer systems with different orientations of the Mg and SiC layers and for different terminations of the SiC layer (Si or C atoms located at the interface). The results are discussed in terms of their implication for mechanical behavior of SiC reinforced Mg alloys.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Multi-Scale Simulation of Metals and Alloys)
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Open AccessArticle
Study on Al Evaporation during AlV55 Melting and Alloy Preparation
by
Bin Sun, Heli Wan, Baoqiang Xu, Xianjun Lei and Lanjie Li
Metals 2024, 14(4), 466; https://doi.org/10.3390/met14040466 - 16 Apr 2024
Abstract
Vacuum induction melting is a commonly used method for preparing AlV55 alloys. However, this method results in high Al evaporation losses, leading to poor cost control. Moreover, the influence of the process parameters on the alloy composition remains unclear. In this study, the
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Vacuum induction melting is a commonly used method for preparing AlV55 alloys. However, this method results in high Al evaporation losses, leading to poor cost control. Moreover, the influence of the process parameters on the alloy composition remains unclear. In this study, the evaporation pattern of Al in the melting and preparation processes of AlV55 alloys is studied, and measures for controlling the system pressure are proposed to effectively reduce Al evaporation. The experimental results show that smelting under an Ar gas atmosphere of 2000 Pa can reduce the evaporation loss of Al from 11.48% under vacuum conditions (60 Pa) to 0.58% of the amount of raw material added, effectively improving the metal utilization rate and reducing production costs. The influence of various process parameters on the alloy composition and Al volatilization are investigated to enable the effective control of the compositional uniformity and impurity content of the resulting alloys. Under optimal conditions, the impurity contents of C, O, and N are 0.03%, 0.0073%, and 0.013%, respectively; this reduces the amount of Al lost by evaporation compared to conventional methods, and the alloy produced meets commercial standards.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Remelting and Casting Processes in the Production of Metals and Alloys)
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Open AccessArticle
Optimization of High-Alumina Blast Furnace Slag Based on Exergy Analysis
by
Zhen Wang, Haiyan Zheng, Yan Zhang and Liang Ge
Metals 2024, 14(4), 465; https://doi.org/10.3390/met14040465 - 15 Apr 2024
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Raw material with a high Al2O3 content has led to an increase in the Al2O3 content in blast furnace slag, which has affected the normal operation of a blast furnace. The exergy analysis method is an important
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Raw material with a high Al2O3 content has led to an increase in the Al2O3 content in blast furnace slag, which has affected the normal operation of a blast furnace. The exergy analysis method is an important method for studying the energy utilization of high-alumina blast furnace smelting. In this paper, to investigate the impact of slag composition on exergy efficiency and optimize exergy efficiency during the smelting process of high Al2O3 iron ore, a gray box exergy analysis model of blast furnace smelting and an objective function for minimizing the total exergy loss were developed. The results indicated that the blast furnace smelting process had an exergy efficiency (η) of 28.29% for hot metal and slag; the exergy efficiency of the blast furnace did not significantly increase with the increasing w(MgO)/w(Al2O3) and R (w(CaO)/w(SiO2)), but the exergy efficiency of the blast furnace declined with increasing w(Al2O3). The regional optimal solution for the objective function method was 7129.42 MJ with slag compositions of R = 1.295, w(MgO)/w(Al2O3) = 0.545, and w(Al2O3) = 15%.
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Open AccessReview
A Comprehensive Review of Fatigue Strength in Pure Copper Metals (DHP, OF, ETP)
by
Eduardo Jiménez-Ruiz, Rubén Lostado-Lorza and Carlos Berlanga-Labari
Metals 2024, 14(4), 464; https://doi.org/10.3390/met14040464 - 15 Apr 2024
Abstract
Due to their exceptional electrical and thermal conductivity properties, high-purity copper (Cu-DHP) and copper alloys of similar composition, such as electrolytic tough-pitch (ETP), oxygen-free electronic (OFE) and oxygen-free (OF), have often been used in the manufacture of essential components for the electrical, electronic
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Due to their exceptional electrical and thermal conductivity properties, high-purity copper (Cu-DHP) and copper alloys of similar composition, such as electrolytic tough-pitch (ETP), oxygen-free electronic (OFE) and oxygen-free (OF), have often been used in the manufacture of essential components for the electrical, electronic and power generation industries. Since these components are subject to cyclic loads in service, they can suffer progressive structural damage that causes failure due to fatigue. The purpose of this review is to examine the most relevant aspects of mechanical fatigue in Cu-DHP, ETP, OFE and OF. The impact of many factors on fatigue strength (Se), including the frequency, temperature, chemical environment, grain size, metallurgical condition and load type, were analyzed and discussed. Stress–life (S-N) curves under zero mean stress (σm = 0) were found for high-cycle fatigue (HCF). For non-zero mean stress (σm ≠ 0), stress curves were based on a combination of Gerber, Soderberg and ASME elliptic failure criteria. Stress–life (S-N) curves were also developed to correlate fatigue strength (Se) with stress amplitude (σa), yield strength (Syp) and ultimate strength (Sut). Finally, for low-cycle fatigue (LCF), strain–life (ε-N) curves that establish a relationship between the number of cycles to failure (N) and total strain amplitude (εplastic) were determined. Hence, this review, as well as the proposed curves, provide valuable information to understand fatigue failure for these types of materials.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fatigue Behavior in Metallic Materials)
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Open AccessArticle
Orientation Relationship of the Intergrowth Al13Fe3 and Al13Fe4 Intermetallics Determined by Single-Crystal X-ray Diffraction
by
Yibo Liu, Changzeng Fan, Zhefeng Xu, Ruidong Fu, Bin Wen and Lifeng Zhang
Metals 2024, 14(4), 463; https://doi.org/10.3390/met14040463 - 15 Apr 2024
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In the Al-Fe binary system, the Al13Fe3 phase as well as the Al13Fe4 phase has similar icosahedral building blocks like those appearing in quasicrystals. Therefore, it is of vital importance to clarify the formation process of these
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In the Al-Fe binary system, the Al13Fe3 phase as well as the Al13Fe4 phase has similar icosahedral building blocks like those appearing in quasicrystals. Therefore, it is of vital importance to clarify the formation process of these two phases. Coexistence of the Al13Fe3 and Al13Fe4 phases was discovered from the educts obtained with a nominal atomic ratio of Al/Fe of 9:2 by high-pressure sintering for the first time. Firstly, single crystal X-ray diffraction (SXRD) combined with a scanning electron microscope (SEM) with energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX) measurement capabilities were adopted to determine the detailed crystal structures of both phases, which were sharply refined with regard to Al13Fe3 and Al13Fe4. Secondly, the orientation relationship between Al13Fe3 and Al13Fe4 was directly deduced from the SXRD datasets and the coexistence structure model was consequently constructed. Finally, seven pairs of parallel atomic planes and their unique orientation relations were determined from the reconstructed reciprocal space precession images. In addition, the real space structure model of the intergrowth crystal along with one kind of interfacial atomic structure were constructed from the determined orientation relations between two phases.
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Open AccessArticle
Study of Assimilation of Cored Wire into Liquid Steel Baths
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Edgar-Ivan Castro-Cedeno, Julien Jourdan, Jonathan Martens, Jean-Pierre Bellot and Alain Jardy
Metals 2024, 14(4), 462; https://doi.org/10.3390/met14040462 - 15 Apr 2024
Abstract
Cored wire is a widespread technology used for performing additions into liquid metal baths as an alternative to bulk-additions. A laboratory-scale study was performed in which the kinetics of assimilation of cored wire in liquid steel baths were studied. An original dataset of
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Cored wire is a widespread technology used for performing additions into liquid metal baths as an alternative to bulk-additions. A laboratory-scale study was performed in which the kinetics of assimilation of cored wire in liquid steel baths were studied. An original dataset of positions of the wire/melt interface of cored wire as a function of the time and steel bath temperature was produced. The dataset was compared against results of simulations made with a transient 1D (radial) thermal model of the assimilation of cored wire, and demonstrated reasonable agreement. Hence, this paper provides a dataset that can be used as a resource for the validation of future developments in the field of modeling cored wire injection into liquid metal baths.
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(This article belongs to the Topic Advanced Processes in Metallurgical Technologies)
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Open AccessArticle
Planning Mechanical Behavior of A356 Alloy Wheels by Using Distinct Heat Treatments
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Adriano L. Tonetti, Wislei R. Osório, Ausdinir D. Bortolozo and Giovana S. Padilha
Metals 2024, 14(4), 461; https://doi.org/10.3390/met14040461 - 13 Apr 2024
Abstract
The aim of this investigation concerns evaluating the mechanical strength and microhardness values of A356 alloy samples in distinctive heat treatments, including those commonly applied to automotive wheels. It is recognized that A356 and Al-Si-based alloys exhibit considerable versatility across numerous industrial applications.
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The aim of this investigation concerns evaluating the mechanical strength and microhardness values of A356 alloy samples in distinctive heat treatments, including those commonly applied to automotive wheels. It is recognized that A356 and Al-Si-based alloys exhibit considerable versatility across numerous industrial applications. The mechanical behavior obtained is intimately associated with different operational parameters (e.g., cooling rates, solution treatment, quenching, and artificial aging). In this study, a group of samples are quenched at 30, 60 and 80 °C. Another set is quenched and subsequently aged at three different temperatures, i.e., 180, 200, and 220 °C for 5 h, and mechanical responses are compared. Microstructural characterization, X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis, tensile testing, and microhardness measurements are carried out. Using the Rietveld data and based on the modified Williamson–Hall method, the microstrains, crystallite size, and dislocation densities are calculated. Based on this, the resulting mechanical strengths from distinctive quenching and aging are understood. It was found that there exists a “quasi-optimal range” of operational parameters involving different A356 alloy treatments, which vary depending on the manufacturing route. Considering A356 alloy wheels, the planning of the powder coat treatment before or after T6 treating provides better mechanical properties and ductility.
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(This article belongs to the Topic Alloys and Composites Corrosion and Mechanical Properties)
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Open AccessArticle
Study on Recovery of Lithium from Lithium-Containing Aluminum Electrolyte
by
Rui Ji, Xi Cui, Wenzheng Zhang, Shichao Wang, Mingliang Yang and Tao Qu
Metals 2024, 14(4), 460; https://doi.org/10.3390/met14040460 - 13 Apr 2024
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The current process of recovering lithium from wasted aluminum electrolyte mostly entails extracting lithium from lithium-containing aluminum electrolyte by acid leaching and dissipation. Aiming at the disadvantages of the existing treatment method, such as the long process flow, environmental pollution, poor working environment,
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The current process of recovering lithium from wasted aluminum electrolyte mostly entails extracting lithium from lithium-containing aluminum electrolyte by acid leaching and dissipation. Aiming at the disadvantages of the existing treatment method, such as the long process flow, environmental pollution, poor working environment, etc., we propose a new technology to extract lithium from the wasted aluminum electrolyte and systematically investigate the effects of raw material particle size, holding time, temperature and other factors on the recovery of lithium. The results show that the better process conditions for the recovery of lithium are as follows: the raw material particle size is 75~150 μm, the additive is CaCl2, the mass ratio of calcium chloride to lithium-containing aluminum electrolyte is 3:5, the reaction temperature is 1473 K, and the holding time is 3 h. After the product of the reaction is crushed and leaching is carried out by using deionized water (pH = 6.8), the temperature of the leaching is 368 K, the leaching time is 3 h, and the solid–liquid ratio is 1/3, and the leaching rate of Li can be up to 75.1%. In addition, the purity of the recovered AlF3 is more than 92.7%. This process realizes the comprehensive and efficient use of lithium-containing aluminum electrolyte and provides a new idea for the development of lithium extraction technology from lithium-containing aluminum electrolyte.
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Open AccessArticle
Additive Manufacturing for Rapid Sand Casting: Mechanical and Microstructural Investigation of Aluminum Alloy Automotive Prototypes
by
Silvia Cecchel and Giovanna Cornacchia
Metals 2024, 14(4), 459; https://doi.org/10.3390/met14040459 - 13 Apr 2024
Abstract
The automotive industry is undergoing a rapid evolution to meet today’s challenges; therefore, continuous innovation and product development are needed. Validation tests on prototypes play a crucial role in moving new components into industrial production. There is also a pressing need for faster
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The automotive industry is undergoing a rapid evolution to meet today’s challenges; therefore, continuous innovation and product development are needed. Validation tests on prototypes play a crucial role in moving new components into industrial production. There is also a pressing need for faster prototyping processes. In this context, rapid sand casting (RSC), based on additive manufacturing technology, offers a promising solution for a quick production of sand molds. While this technology is already employed in the industry, the need to deepen the general understanding of its impact on the casting properties is still a relevant item. In this study, different geometries of automotive prototypes made of aluminum EN AC 42100-T6 alloy were experimentally analyzed. Microstructural examinations, tensile tests, and fractography and porosity analyses were conducted. The findings demonstrate the considerable potential of RSC, giving, in general, high mechanical properties. A comparative analysis with prototypes produced through traditional sand casting revealed similar results, with RSC exhibiting superior yield strength and stress at brake. However, both technologies revealed a reduced elongation percentage, as expected. Future efforts will focus on standardizing the RSC process to enhance ductility levels.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Light Alloy and Its Application II)
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Open AccessArticle
Evaluation of Energy Utilization Efficiency and Optimal Energy Matching Model of EAF Steelmaking Based on Association Rule Mining
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Lingzhi Yang, Zhihui Li, Hang Hu, Yuchi Zou, Zeng Feng, Weizhen Chen, Feng Chen, Shuai Wang and Yufeng Guo
Metals 2024, 14(4), 458; https://doi.org/10.3390/met14040458 - 12 Apr 2024
Abstract
In the iron and steel industry, evaluating the energy utilization efficiency (EUE) and determining the optimal energy matching mode play an important role in addressing increasing energy depletion and environmental problems. Electric Arc Furnace (EAF) steelmaking is a typical short crude steel production
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In the iron and steel industry, evaluating the energy utilization efficiency (EUE) and determining the optimal energy matching mode play an important role in addressing increasing energy depletion and environmental problems. Electric Arc Furnace (EAF) steelmaking is a typical short crude steel production route, which is characterized by an energy-intensive fast smelting rhythm and diversified raw charge structure. In this paper, the energy model of the EAF steelmaking process is established to conduct an energy analysis and EUE evaluation. An association rule mining (ARM) strategy for guiding the EAF production process based on data cleaning, feature selection, and an association rule (AR) algorithm was proposed, and the effectiveness of this strategy was verified. The unsupervised algorithm Auto-Encoder (AE) was adopted to detect and eliminate abnormal data, complete data cleaning, and ensure data quality and accuracy. The AE model performs best when the number of nodes in the hidden layer is 18. The feature selection determines 10 factors such as the hot metal (HM) ratio and HM temperature as important data features to simplify the model structure. According to different ratios and temperatures of the HM, combined with k-means clustering and an AR algorithm, the optimal operation process for the EUE in the EAF steelmaking under different smelting modes is proposed. The results indicated that under the conditions of a low HM ratio and low HM temperature, the EUE is best when the power consumption in the second stage ranges between 4853 kWh and 7520 kWh, the oxygen consumption in the second stage ranges between 1816 m3 and 1961 m3, and the natural gas consumption ranges between 156 m3 and 196 m3. Conversely, under the conditions of a high HM ratio and high HM temperature, the EUE tends to decrease, and the EUE is best when the furnace wall oxygen consumption ranges between 4732 m3 and 5670 m3, and the oxygen consumption in the second stage ranges between 1561 m3 and 1871 m3. By comparison, under different smelting modes, the smelting scheme obtained by the ARM has an obvious effect on the improvement of the EUE. With a high EUE, the improvement of the A2B1 smelting mode is the most obvious, from 24.7% to 53%. This study is expected to provide technical ideas for energy conservation and emission reduction in the EAF steelmaking process in the future.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Green and Intelligent Steelmaking Technologies with Low Carbon Emissions)
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Open AccessArticle
Numerical Simulation of Cathode Nodule Local Effects
by
Xiaoyu Wang, Chun Li and Jun Tie
Metals 2024, 14(4), 457; https://doi.org/10.3390/met14040457 - 12 Apr 2024
Abstract
As one of the main factors decreasing current efficiency and product quality, the growth of nodules deserves attention in the copper electrorefining process. Three-dimensional (3D) Finite Element Method models combining tertiary current distribution and fluid flow were established in this study to investigate
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As one of the main factors decreasing current efficiency and product quality, the growth of nodules deserves attention in the copper electrorefining process. Three-dimensional (3D) Finite Element Method models combining tertiary current distribution and fluid flow were established in this study to investigate the details of the growth of columnar nodules, including the electrolyte flow around the nodule and its effects. Compared with an inert nodule, a significant impact of the electrochemical reaction of an active nodule has been observed on the fluid flow, which may be one of the reasons for the formation of small nodule clusters on the cathode. Furthermore, the local current density is not even on the nodule surface under the comprehensive influence of local electrolyte flow, local overvoltage, and the angle with the anode surface. Thus, the head of an active nodule grows faster than the root, and the upper parts grow faster than the lower parts, leading to asymmetric growth of the nodules.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modeling and Simulation of Multiphase Transport Phenomena in Process Metallurgy)
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Open AccessArticle
Simulation Models in a Fluidity Test of the Al-Si Alloy
by
Marek Šolc, Peter Blaško, Jozef Petrík, Lenka Girmanová, Andrea Blašková, Tomasz Małysa, Joanna Furman and Vladimír Socha
Metals 2024, 14(4), 456; https://doi.org/10.3390/met14040456 - 12 Apr 2024
Abstract
The goal of the fluidity test is to evaluate the ability of the melt to fill the cavity of the mold, which is one of the factors affecting the final quality of the castings. It is a technological test that is basically not
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The goal of the fluidity test is to evaluate the ability of the melt to fill the cavity of the mold, which is one of the factors affecting the final quality of the castings. It is a technological test that is basically not standardized, therefore it is realized in different forms, for example using “horizontal” and “vertical” molds. The “horizontal” mold makes it easier to fulfill the condition of repeatability, therefore it was used to calculate the capability of the test by the Measurement Systems Analysis (MSA) method. The results of the tests in both molds were used to calculate regression equations that allow the fluidity to be determined with strong reliability based on variables such as melt temperature, casting speed, and mold temperature. In addition, the effects of input data variability (uncertainty) on the resulting fluidity value were analyzed using regression equations and the Monte Carlo simulation. The contribution of the article is the analysis of the capability of the measurement process of the fluidity and a prediction of the results of its tests using the Monte Carlo simulation method.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Casting and Solidification Processing (Second Edition))
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