Journal Description
Processes
Processes
is an international, peer-reviewed, open access journal on processes/systems in chemistry, biology, material, energy, environment, food, pharmaceutical, manufacturing, automation control, catalysis, separation, particle and allied engineering fields published monthly online by MDPI. The Systems and Control Division of the Canadian Society for Chemical Engineering (CSChE S&C Division) and the Brazilian Association of Chemical Engineering (ABEQ) are affiliated with Processes and their members receive discounts on the article processing charges. Please visit Society Collaborations for more details.
- Open Access— free for readers, with article processing charges (APC) paid by authors or their institutions.
- High Visibility: indexed within Scopus, SCIE (Web of Science), Ei Compendex, Inspec, AGRIS, and other databases.
- Journal Rank: JCR - Q2 (Engineering, Chemical) / CiteScore - Q2 (Chemical Engineering (miscellaneous))
- Rapid Publication: manuscripts are peer-reviewed and a first decision is provided to authors approximately 13.7 days after submission; acceptance to publication is undertaken in 2.8 days (median values for papers published in this journal in the second half of 2023).
- Recognition of Reviewers: reviewers who provide timely, thorough peer-review reports receive vouchers entitling them to a discount on the APC of their next publication in any MDPI journal, in appreciation of the work done.
Impact Factor:
3.5 (2022);
5-Year Impact Factor:
3.4 (2022)
Latest Articles
IoT-Based Data Mining Framework for Stability Assessment of the Laser-Directed Energy Deposition Process
Processes 2024, 12(6), 1180; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr12061180 - 7 Jun 2024
Abstract
Additive manufacturing processes are prone to production errors. Specifically, the unique physical conditions of Laser-Directed Energy Deposition (DED-L) lead to unexpected process anomalies resulting in subpar part quality. The resulting costs and lack of reproducibility are two major barriers hindering a broader adoption
[...] Read more.
Additive manufacturing processes are prone to production errors. Specifically, the unique physical conditions of Laser-Directed Energy Deposition (DED-L) lead to unexpected process anomalies resulting in subpar part quality. The resulting costs and lack of reproducibility are two major barriers hindering a broader adoption of this innovative technology. Combining sensor data with data from relevant steps before and after the production process can lead to an increased understanding of when and why these process anomalies occur. In the present study, an IoT-based data mining framework is presented to assess the stability of processing Ti6Al4V on an industrial-grade DED-L machine. The framework employs an edge-cloud computing methodology to collect data efficiently and securely from various steps in the part lifecycle. During manufacturing, multiple sensors are employed to monitor the essential process characteristics in situ. Mechanical properties of the 160 printed specimens were obtained using appropriate destructive testing. All data are stored on a central database and can be accessed via the web for data analytics. The results prove the successful implementation of the proposed IoT framework but also indicate a lack of process stability during manufacturing. The occurring part errors can only be partially correlated with anomalies in the in situ sensor data.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Monitoring and Control of Processes in the Context of Industry 4.0)
Open AccessArticle
An Experimental Study on the Solubility of Betulin in the Complex Solvent Ethanol-DMSO
by
Gulbarshin K. Shambilova, Aigul S. Bukanova, Altynay S. Kalauova, Danagul Zh. Kalimanova, Amangeldi I. Abilkhairov, Igor S. Makarov, Markel I. Vinogradov, Georgy I. Makarov, Sergey A. Yakimov, Alexander V. Koksharov and Egor M. Novikov
Processes 2024, 12(6), 1179; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr12061179 - 7 Jun 2024
Abstract
Betulin is a promising natural organic substance due to its antibacterial, fungicidal, and antitumor properties, as are their derivatives. The particle size of betulin can reach several tens of micrometers, and its thickness is several microns. There are various ways of processing betulin,
[...] Read more.
Betulin is a promising natural organic substance due to its antibacterial, fungicidal, and antitumor properties, as are their derivatives. The particle size of betulin can reach several tens of micrometers, and its thickness is several microns. There are various ways of processing betulin, but the most promising are solution methods (applying thin layers, impregnation, etc.). Application or impregnation of various materials is carried out using betulin; however, currently known solvents do not allow obtaining solutions with the necessary content of it. Since a number of direct solvents are already known for betulin, which provides only low-concentration solutions, the use of complex systems based on two solvents can become the optimal solution to the problem. The literature data show that the use of mixtures of solvents allows for the preparation of homogeneous solutions, for example, for natural polymers like cellulose, etc. This approach to obtaining solutions has become the basis for the processing of betulin. The use of a mixed solvent based on ethanol and DMSO for the preparation of betulin solutions has been proposed for the first time. The solubility of betulin in a mixture system with a ratio of components of 50 wt.% to 50 wt.% was studied, and a solubility curve was plotted. It is shown that the use of a two-component solvent makes it possible to transfer up to 10% of betulin into solution, which is almost twice as much as compared to already known solvents. The rheological properties of the obtained solutions have been studied. The viscosity of betulin solutions in a complex solvent depends on its content and temperature, so for 7% solutions at 70 °C, it is approximately 0.008 Pa*s. Applying betulin to the surface of the cardboard increases its hydrophobic properties and repellency.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue High-Value Products from Biomass and Wastes)
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Open AccessArticle
Bibliometric Analysis: Use of Agricultural Waste in the Generation of Electrical Energy
by
Rojas-Flores Segundo, De La Cruz-Noriega Magaly, Cabanillas-Chirinos Luis, Nélida Milly Otiniano, Nancy Soto-Deza, Nicole Terrones-Rodriguez and De La Cruz-Cerquin Mayra
Processes 2024, 12(6), 1178; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr12061178 - 7 Jun 2024
Abstract
Scientific reports have diversified enormously in the various thematic areas of the scientific world, generating errors and biases in the searches and directing the various investigations. For this reason, this article provides an approach, from the point of view of bibliometric analysis, to
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Scientific reports have diversified enormously in the various thematic areas of the scientific world, generating errors and biases in the searches and directing the various investigations. For this reason, this article provides an approach, from the point of view of bibliometric analysis, to reveal the trends of agricultural waste for its potential use as fuel in generating electrical energy. This research has used the programs RStudio, VosViewer, and Excel for the compilation and analysis of data, whose data were extracted from Scopus during the period from 2013 to 15 March 2024, filtering all types of publications that were not original articles and English language. Scientific reports have found that biodigesters are constantly evolving, improving valves, studying and analyzing different types of agricultural waste, and using microorganisms to accelerate the fermentation process of agricultural waste. The terms biogas (330 occurrences), anaerobic digestion (214 occurrences), and agriculture (212 occurrences) were the words with the highest occurrences. At the same time, the author that stood out was Liu Y., who had an H index of 6 and 117 citations in his six articles published in the Scopus database. Moreover, China (1900 citations) was the country with the highest citation numbers, followed by the United States (1060 citations) and India (967 citations). The designs of biogas production increase efficiency and can increase biodigesters’ performance. The research also reveals the different types of development and trends that stood out and emerged in the last decade, such as the authors who have had the most impact on this topic that has recently emerged and the countries that have obtained the most significant number of publications on the topic.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Recycling and Utilization of Agricultural Wastes)
Open AccessArticle
Identification and Absorption–Distribution–Metabolism–Excretion–Toxicity Prediction of Potential MTHFD2 Enzyme Inhibitors from Urtica dioica Ethanolic Leaf Extract
by
Shifaa O. Alshammari
Processes 2024, 12(6), 1177; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr12061177 - 7 Jun 2024
Abstract
This study aimed to explore the potential of Urtica dioica (U. dioica) ethanolic leaf extract for cancer treatment by identifying its components, evaluating its effects on cancer cell lines, and analyzing its molecular docking. The objective of this study was to
[...] Read more.
This study aimed to explore the potential of Urtica dioica (U. dioica) ethanolic leaf extract for cancer treatment by identifying its components, evaluating its effects on cancer cell lines, and analyzing its molecular docking. The objective of this study was to investigate the anticancer properties of U. dioica ethanolic leaf extract and assess its potential as a therapeutic strategy for cancer treatment. This study utilized high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) to analyze the chemical composition of U. dioica ethanolic leaf extract. The anticancer effects of the extract were evaluated by assessing cell viability, determining IC50 values, and conducting ADMET analysis after oral administration. U. dioica ethanolic leaf extract was found to contain methyl hexadecanoate as its primary component, along with flavonoids and polyphenols. It effectively reduced cell viability in various tested cancer cell lines, with IC50 values varying for each cell line. The duration of treatment significantly influenced cell viability, with the most significant reduction observed after 48 h. Molecular docking studies suggested that catechin, kaempferol, and quercetin-3-O-rutinoside may have potential as inhibitors of the MTHFD2 enzyme. This study revealed the potential of U. dioica and its compounds in cancer treatment. Ethanolic leaf extract has been shown to have anticancer effects on various cancer cell lines, with catechin and kaempferol showing promise as inhibitors of the MTHFD2 enzyme. Further research is warranted to explore the therapeutic implications of U. dioica in cancer treatment.
Full article
Open AccessArticle
Study of Retention of Drilling Fluid Layer on Annulus Wall during Cementing
by
Zhiqiang Wu, Zehua Chen and Chengwen Wang
Processes 2024, 12(6), 1176; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr12061176 - 7 Jun 2024
Abstract
To guarantee that the cement sheath has a sealing effect, it is best to replace the drilling fluid entirely and fill the annulus with cement slurry throughout the cementing process. A significant driving power and high stability at the interface between the cement
[...] Read more.
To guarantee that the cement sheath has a sealing effect, it is best to replace the drilling fluid entirely and fill the annulus with cement slurry throughout the cementing process. A significant driving power and high stability at the interface between the cement slurry and drilling fluid are often necessary for achieving a high displacement efficiency. It is important that a comprehensive theoretical characterization is established on the thickness and location of drilling fluid retention and the conditions to prevent the formation of drilling fluid retention. In this study, firstly, the characteristics of annulus fluid shear stress distribution are analyzed by establishing the differential equation of shear stress distribution. Subsequently, the calculation model of the drilling fluid retention layer’s thickness is constructed. Subsequently, the impact of cement slurry and drilling fluid properties, eccentricity of the casing, and additional variables on the annular wall’s drilling fluid retention thickness are scrutinized. The quantitative conditions for preventing drilling fluid retention are also analyzed (i.e., Equation (23)). Based on the newly developed model, a case study is conducted to show the significance of the new model. This offers a theoretical foundation for enhancing cement injection displacement efficiency and cementing performance optimization.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Energy Systems)
Open AccessArticle
Satisfaction with Rooftop Photovoltaic Systems and Feed-in-Tariffs Effects on Energy and Environmental Goals in Jordan
by
Abbas Al-Refaie and Natalija Lepkova
Processes 2024, 12(6), 1175; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr12061175 - 7 Jun 2024
Abstract
Rooftop photovoltaic (RPV) systems are valuable clean-energy-efficient technology that facilitates the transition toward energy sustainability in residential buildings. Hence, the government in Jordan implemented the feed-in-tariffs (FiT) policy to motivate residents’ willingness to install RPV systems. However, the quality of RPV products and
[...] Read more.
Rooftop photovoltaic (RPV) systems are valuable clean-energy-efficient technology that facilitates the transition toward energy sustainability in residential buildings. Hence, the government in Jordan implemented the feed-in-tariffs (FiT) policy to motivate residents’ willingness to install RPV systems. However, the quality of RPV products and services is a key determinant of social acceptance to install RPV systems. Hence, manufacturers and suppliers are working closely with adopters to design and manufacture RPV systems that meet or exceed their expectations. Still, there is a need to develop a quantitative assessment to examine the effects of this FiT policy and the quality of RPV systems on energy security. This study, therefore, develops a system dynamics model to examine the effects of the FiT policy and the quality of RPV products and services on social acceptance to install RPV systems. To achieve this objective, several hypotheses were established related to the main model factors, including the quality of services, complaint reduction, performance ratio, payback period and warranty, and FiT price, with a willingness to install RPV systems. Then, a system dynamics model was constructed. The simulation results reveal the significant factor that impacts energy goals. Moreover, from the end of the year 2030 to the end of 2050, RPV installations, generated power, and CO2 emission reductions are expected to increase from 0.681 GW to 72.83 GW, from 1.07 to 125.74 TWh, and from 0.680 to 79.59 million tons of CO2, respectively. Optimization was performed to maximize the three objectives under the uncertainty of key model variables. The optimal factor values can significantly increase the current energy goals by about 20%. In conclusion, collecting, analyzing, and evaluating adopter input and feedback on RPV systems regarding their design and technology and manufacturing and the post-services of RPV systems significantly influence energy sustainability in residential buildings. In addition, government support through investing in the FiT policy can boost RPV installations in residential buildings.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Optimal Design for Renewable Power Systems)
Open AccessArticle
Leveraging Designed Simulations and Machine Learning to Develop a Surrogate Model for Optimizing the Gas–Downhole Water Sink–Assisted Gravity Drainage (GDWS-AGD) Process to Improve Clean Oil Production
by
Watheq J. Al-Mudhafar, Dandina N. Rao and Andrew K. Wojtanowicz
Processes 2024, 12(6), 1174; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr12061174 - 7 Jun 2024
Abstract
The Gas and Downhole Water Sink–Assisted Gravity Drainage (GDWS-AGD) process addresses gas flooding limitations in reservoirs surrounded by infinite-acting aquifers, particularly water coning. The GDWS-AGD technique reduces water cut in oil production wells, improves gas injectivity, and optimizes oil recovery, especially in reservoirs
[...] Read more.
The Gas and Downhole Water Sink–Assisted Gravity Drainage (GDWS-AGD) process addresses gas flooding limitations in reservoirs surrounded by infinite-acting aquifers, particularly water coning. The GDWS-AGD technique reduces water cut in oil production wells, improves gas injectivity, and optimizes oil recovery, especially in reservoirs with high water coning. The GDWS-AGD process installs two 7-inch production casings bilaterally. Then, two 2-3/8-inch horizontal tubings are completed. One tubing produces oil above the oil–water contact (OWC) area, while the other drains water below it. A hydraulic packer in the casing separates the two completions. The water sink completion uses a submersible pump to prevent water from traversing the oil column and entering the horizontal oil-producing perforations. To improve oil recovery in the heterogeneous upper sandstone pay zone of the South Rumaila oil field, which has a strong aquifer and a large edge water drive, the GDWS-AGD process evaluation was performed using a compositional reservoir flow model in a 10-year prediction period in comparison to the GAGD process. The results show that the GDWS-AGD method surpasses the GAGD by 275 million STB in cumulative oil production and 4.7% in recovery factor. Based on a 10-year projection, the GDWS-AGD process could produce the same amount of oil in 1.5 years. In addition, the net present value (NPV) given various oil prices (USD 10–USD 100 per STB) was calculated through the GAGD and GDWS-AGD processes. The GDWS-AGD approach outperforms GAGD in terms of NPV across the entire range of oil prices. The GAGD technique became uneconomical when oil prices dropped below USD 10 per STB. Design of Experiments–Latin Hypercube Sampling (DoE-LHS) and radial basis function neural networks (RBF-NNs) were used to determine the optimum operational decision variables that influence the GDWS-AGD process’s performance and build the proxy metamodel. Decision variables include well constraints that control injection and production. The optimum approach increased the recovery factor by 1.7525% over the GDWS-AGD process Base Case. With GDWS-AGD, water cut and coning tendency were significantly reduced, along with reservoir pressure, which all led to increasing gas injectivity and oil recovery. The GDWS-AGD technique increases the production of oil and NPV more than the GAGD process. Finally, the GDWS-AGD technique offers significant improvements in oil recovery and income compared to GAGD, especially in reservoirs with strong water aquifers.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Reservoir Simulation and Modelling, Thermal and Enhanced Oil Recovery Processes)
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Open AccessArticle
Controlling Oxidation of Kerf Loss Silicon Waste Enabling Stable Battery Anode
by
Yan Jiang, Sitong He, Siqi Ma, Fengshuo Xi, Ilya M. Gavrilin, Zhongqiu Tong, Jijun Lu, Neng Wan, Wenhui Ma, Yunpeng Zhu, Pingkeng Wu and Shaoyuan Li
Processes 2024, 12(6), 1173; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr12061173 - 7 Jun 2024
Abstract
The recovery of massive kerf loss silicon waste into silicon anodes is an attractive approach to efficiently utilizing resources and protect the environment. Tens-of-nanometers-scale-thickness Si waste particles enable the high feasibility of high-rate Li-ion storage, but continuous oxidation leads to a gradual loss
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The recovery of massive kerf loss silicon waste into silicon anodes is an attractive approach to efficiently utilizing resources and protect the environment. Tens-of-nanometers-scale-thickness Si waste particles enable the high feasibility of high-rate Li-ion storage, but continuous oxidation leads to a gradual loss of electrochemical activity. Understanding the relationship between this oxidation and Li-ion storage properties is key to efficiently recovering silicon wastes into silicon anodes. However, corresponding research is rare. Herein, a series of silicon waste samples with different oxidation states were synthesized and their Li-ion storage characters were investigated. By analyzing their Li-ion storage properties and kinetics, we found that oxidation has absolutely detrimental effects on Li-ion storage performance, which is different to previously reported results of nano-silicon materials. The 2.5 wt.% Si provides a substantial initial discharge capacity of 3519 mAh/g at 0.5 A/g. The capacity retention of 2.5 wt.% Si is almost 70% after 500 cycles at 1 A/g. However, the 35.8 wt.% Si presents a modest initial discharge capacity of merely 170 mAh/g. Additionally, oxidation leads the Li-ion storage kinetics to transform from Li-ion diffusion-controlled to charge transfer-controlled behaviors. For kerf loss silicon waste with an oxygen content over 35.8 wt.%, Li-ion storage capability is lost due to a high charge transfer resistance and a low Li-ion diffusion coefficient.
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(This article belongs to the Section Materials Processes)
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Open AccessFeature PaperArticle
Comparison of Mechanical, Fatigue, and Corrosion Properties of Fusion-Welded High-Strength AA6011 Alloy Using Three Filler Wires
by
Mohamed Ahmed, Mousa Javidani, Alexandre Maltais and X.-Grant Chen
Processes 2024, 12(6), 1172; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr12061172 - 7 Jun 2024
Abstract
In this study, the welding performance of three filler wires, ER4043, ER5356, and the newly developed FMg0.6, were systematically investigated in the gas metal arc welding of high-strength AA6011-T6 plates. An extensive analysis of the microstructural evolution, mechanical properties, fatigue resistance, and corrosion
[...] Read more.
In this study, the welding performance of three filler wires, ER4043, ER5356, and the newly developed FMg0.6, were systematically investigated in the gas metal arc welding of high-strength AA6011-T6 plates. An extensive analysis of the microstructural evolution, mechanical properties, fatigue resistance, and corrosion behavior of different weldments was conducted. The ER4043 and FMg0.6 joints exhibited finer grain sizes in the fusion zone (FZ) than the ER5356 joint. The as-welded ER5356 and FMg0.6 joints exhibited higher hardness and tensile strength values than the ER4043 joint. The FMg0.6 joint demonstrated the highest mechanical strength among all of the joints with superior fatigue resistance under both the as-welded and post-weld heat treatment (PWHT) conditions. In the as-welded state, the ER5356 joint exhibited the lowest corrosion resistance, attributed to the precipitation of β-Al2Mg3 at the grain boundaries. The FMg0.6 joint, characterized by a high-volume fraction of eutectic Mg2Si in the as-welded state, exhibited a higher corrosion rate than that of the ER4043 joint. However, the PWHT effectively improved the corrosion resistance of the FMg0.6 joint. Given its excellent tensile properties, superior fatigue properties, and satisfactory corrosion resistance, particularly with PWHT, the newly developed FMg0.6 filler has emerged as a promising candidate for welding high-strength 6xxx alloys.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances and Implementation of Welding and Additive Manufacturing)
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Open AccessArticle
Influence of the Material Mechanical Properties on Cutting Surface Quality during Turning
by
Il-Seok Kang and Tae-Ho Lee
Processes 2024, 12(6), 1171; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr12061171 - 7 Jun 2024
Abstract
In cutting processing, the mechanical properties of the material are very important, and the optimal cutting conditions, depending on strength, hardness, and elongation, affect the quality of the machined surface. Therefore, this study was conducted to obtain optimized cutting conditions such as the
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In cutting processing, the mechanical properties of the material are very important, and the optimal cutting conditions, depending on strength, hardness, and elongation, affect the quality of the machined surface. Therefore, this study was conducted to obtain optimized cutting conditions such as the tool depth of the cut, cutting speed, and feed rate, considering the mechanical properties of the material. AISI 1045 cold-drawn (CD) bars showed an average tensile strength of 695.31 MPa in the tensile test and an average value of 308.6 HV in the Vickers hardness measurement. AISI 1020 CD bars showed a 22.66% lower average tensile strength of 537.74 MPa and an average of 198.77 HV in the hardness measurement. Therefore, AISI 1020 showed a 32.62% higher elongation than AISI 1045. In the measurement results for surface roughness after cutting, different results were observed depending on the strength and elongation at a feed rate of 0.05 mm/rev. AISI 1045 exhibited the highest machining quality, with a surface roughness of approximately 0.374 µm at a cutting speed of 150 m/min, and the cutting depth was 0.4 mm at a feed rate of 0.05 mm/rev. Alternatively, AISI 1020, which had relatively low strength and hardness with high elongation, exhibited the highest machining quality with a roughness of 0.383 µm with similar cutting parameters as AISI 1045.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Manufacturing Processes: Enhancements through Smart and Sustainable Approaches)
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Open AccessArticle
Study on Characteristics of Front Abutment Pressure and Rational Stop-Mining Coal Pillar Width in Large Height Working Face
by
Wei Yu, Gangwei Fan, Dongsheng Zhang, Wenhao Guo, Wenhui Zhang, Shizhong Zhang and Zhanglei Fan
Processes 2024, 12(6), 1170; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr12061170 - 7 Jun 2024
Abstract
The width of a stop-mining coal pillar is of great significance to the stability of the surrounding rock of the main roadway and the safety of production in the mine. This paper focuses on the west panel of Sihe Coal Mine as the
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The width of a stop-mining coal pillar is of great significance to the stability of the surrounding rock of the main roadway and the safety of production in the mine. This paper focuses on the west panel of Sihe Coal Mine as the engineering background, analyzes the evolution characteristics of front abutment pressure in the mining area under conditions of rapid advancement and large mining height and its sensitivity to influencing factors, explores the coupling mechanism between the width of the stop-mining coal pillar and the surrounding rock of the main roadway, and analyzes the differences in mining pressure characteristics such as internal stress of the coal pillar, vertical stress, deformation, and failure of the main roadway’s surrounding rock under different coal pillar widths with the influence of mining. The comprehensive results indicate that the influence range of front abutment pressure on the working face is 65 m, and the significance ranking of different mining factors acting on it is as follows: mining height > working face length > advancing speed. The rational width of the stop-mining coal pillar is determined to be 80 m while the stress field of the surrounding rock in the main roadway is in a critical state of mining disturbance. Industrial tests have shown that the relative displacements between the roof and floor as well as the ribs of the main roadway are relatively small, at 105 and 260 mm, respectively, which can effectively maintain the stability of the surrounding rock of the main roadway. The research results can provide a scientific basis and engineering reference for the design of stop-mining coal pillars in mines with similar geological conditions.
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(This article belongs to the Section Chemical Processes and Systems)
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Open AccessArticle
Unveiling the Superiority of Innovative Carbonated Self-Nanoemulsifying Drug Delivery Systems in Improving the Stability of Acid-Labile Drugs: Atorvastatin as a Model Drug
by
Abdelrahman Y. Sherif and Mohamed A. Ibrahim
Processes 2024, 12(6), 1169; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr12061169 - 6 Jun 2024
Abstract
Atorvastatin (AT) is widely prescribed by physicians during the treatment of hyperlipidemia. The self-nanoemulsifying drug delivery system (SNEDDS) is used to overcome its low drug solubility and bioavailability. However, the presence of free fatty acids in SNEDDS formulation resulted in remarkable AT degradation.
[...] Read more.
Atorvastatin (AT) is widely prescribed by physicians during the treatment of hyperlipidemia. The self-nanoemulsifying drug delivery system (SNEDDS) is used to overcome its low drug solubility and bioavailability. However, the presence of free fatty acids in SNEDDS formulation resulted in remarkable AT degradation. This study explores innovative carbonated SNEDDS to enhance the stability of AT within SNEDDS formulation. Various types of SNEDDS formulations were prepared and evaluated. In vitro dissolution was performed to examine the ability of SNEDDS formulation to enhance AT dissolution. The solidified SNEDDS formation was prepared using Syloid adsorbent (AT-SF6). In addition, sodium bicarbonate was loaded within the best formulation at various concentrations to prepare carbonated SNEDDS (AT-CF6). Kinetics of drug degradation were studied over 45 days to assess AT stability in SNEDDS formulations. It was found that the SNEDDS formulation was able to enhance the dissolution of AT by about 1.5-fold compared with the pure drug formulation. AT-SF6 did not reduce the degradation rate of the drug compared with AT-F6. However, AT-CF6 formulations showed that increasing the concentration of incorporated sodium bicarbonate significantly reduced the degradation rate of AT. It was found that sodium bicarbonate in AT-CF6 significantly reduced the degradation rate of AT (0.00019) six-fold compared with AT-F6 (0.00115). The obtained results show that carbonated SNEDDS is a promising approach to enhance the stability of acid-labile drugs and their pharmaceutical application.
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(This article belongs to the Section Pharmaceutical Processes)
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Open AccessArticle
Carbon Molecular Sieve Membrane Reactors for Ammonia Cracking
by
Valentina Cechetto, Gaetano Anello, Arash Rahimalimamaghani and Fausto Gallucci
Processes 2024, 12(6), 1168; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr12061168 - 6 Jun 2024
Abstract
The utilization of ammonia for hydrogen storage relies on the implementation of efficient decomposition techniques, and the membrane reactor, which allows simultaneous ammonia decomposition and hydrogen recovery, can be regarded as a promising technology. While Pd-based membranes show the highest performance for hydrogen
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The utilization of ammonia for hydrogen storage relies on the implementation of efficient decomposition techniques, and the membrane reactor, which allows simultaneous ammonia decomposition and hydrogen recovery, can be regarded as a promising technology. While Pd-based membranes show the highest performance for hydrogen separation, their applicability for NH3-sensitive applications, such as proton exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cells, demands relatively thick, and therefore expensive, membranes to meet the purity targets for hydrogen. To address this challenge, this study proposes a solution involving the utilization of a downstream hydrogen purification unit to remove residual ammonia, thereby enabling the use of less selective, therefore more cost-effective, membranes. Specifically, a carbon molecular sieve membrane was prepared on a tubular porous alumina support and tested for ammonia decomposition in a membrane reaction setup. Operating at 5 bar and temperatures ranging from 450 to 500 °C, NH3 conversion rates exceeding 90% were achieved, with conversion approaching thermodynamic equilibrium at temperatures above 475 °C. Simultaneously, the carbon membrane facilitated the recovery of hydrogen from ammonia, yielding recoveries of 8.2–9.8%. While the hydrogen produced at the permeate side of the reactor failed to meet the purity requirements for PEM fuel cell applications, the implementation of a downstream hydrogen purification unit comprising a fixed bed of zeolite 13X enabled the production of fuel cell-grade hydrogen. Despite performance far from being comparable with the ones achieved in the literature with Pd-based membranes, this study underscores the viability of carbon membranes for fuel cell-grade hydrogen production, showcasing their competitiveness in the field.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue 10th Anniversary of Processes: Design of the Chemical Industry of the Future)
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Open AccessArticle
Pressure Characteristics in the Nitrogen-Sealed Power Transformers under Internal Faults
by
Jiansheng Li, Zheng Jia, Shengquan Wang and Shiming Liu
Processes 2024, 12(6), 1167; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr12061167 - 6 Jun 2024
Abstract
The explosion-proof performance is an important index for oil-immersed transformers. The nitrogen-sealed transformer is a new type of transformer with nitrogen gas in the upper space, which can buffer against internal stress increase caused by arc faults. However, the pressure changes in the
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The explosion-proof performance is an important index for oil-immersed transformers. The nitrogen-sealed transformer is a new type of transformer with nitrogen gas in the upper space, which can buffer against internal stress increase caused by arc faults. However, the pressure changes in the transformer under internal faults are unclear. The authors of this study propose a method based on finite element simulation to analyze the pressure changes and the stress on the tank. First, the calculation process of arc energy and the pressure of the bubbles caused by the arc are derived. Second, the dynamic pressure wave propagation model and acoustic-solid coupling model are established. Last, the finite element simulation model is built to analyze the pressure characteristics. Taking the winding turn-to-turn and phase-to-phase short circuit faults as the analysis situations, the pressure changes in the 110 kV/20 MVA nitrogen-sealed transformer are simulated. Due to the pressure wave refraction and reflection, the pressure changes show oscillatory characteristics with time after the occurrence of an internal short circuit fault. The pressure wave travels from the arc fault position to the periphery. Compared to the conventional transformer, the pressure changes with slower variations under an internal short circuit fault and the tank suffer less stress, which indicates that the nitrogen-sealed transformer is more effective in the explosion-proof performance.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Energy Systems)
Open AccessArticle
Improving Thermal Efficiency and Reducing Emissions with CO2 Injection during Late Stage SAGD Development
by
Qi Jiang, Yang Liu, Ying Zhou, Zhongyuan Wang, Yuning Gong, Guanchen Jiang, Siyuan Huang and Chunsheng Yu
Processes 2024, 12(6), 1166; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr12061166 - 6 Jun 2024
Abstract
The steam assisted gravity drainage (SAGD) process requires high energy input to maintain the continuous expansion of the steam chamber for achieving high oil recovery. In the late stage of SAGD operation where the oil rate is low and the heat loss is
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The steam assisted gravity drainage (SAGD) process requires high energy input to maintain the continuous expansion of the steam chamber for achieving high oil recovery. In the late stage of SAGD operation where the oil rate is low and the heat loss is high from a mature steam chamber, maintaining steam chamber pressure with a lower steam injection is the key to maintaining the economic oil-to-steam ratio (OSR). Both laboratory studies and field tests have demonstrated the effectiveness of adding a non-condensable gas (NCG) to the SAGD steam chamber for improving the overall thermal efficiency. In this study, a multi-well reservoir model was built based on the detailed geological description from an operating SAGD project area, which contains thick pay and top water. Grounded with the history matching of more than 20 years of production using CSS (cyclic steam stimulation) and SAGD as follow-up process, the model was applied to optimize the operating strategies for the late stage of SAGD production. The results from this study demonstrated that the co-injection of steam with CO2 or the injection of CO2 only has potential to improve the OSR and reduce emissions by more than 50% through the improvement in steam-saving and the storage of CO2. The results from reservoir modeling indicate that, with the current volume of a steam chamber and an operating pressure of 4.0 MPa, about 55 sm3 of CO2 could be sequestrated and utilized for producing 1.0 m3 of oil from this reservoir through the replacement of a steam injection with CO2 in the late stage of SAGD operation.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Process Technologies for Heavy Oils and Residua Upgradings)
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Open AccessFeature PaperArticle
Edge Computing-Based Modular Control System for Industrial Environments
by
Gonçalo Gouveia, Jorge Alves, Pedro Sousa, Rui Araújo and Jérôme Mendes
Processes 2024, 12(6), 1165; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr12061165 - 6 Jun 2024
Abstract
This paper presents a modular hardware control system tailored for industrial applications. The system presented is designed with electrical protection, guaranteeing the reliable operation of its modules in the presence of various field noises and external disturbances. The modular architecture comprises a principal
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This paper presents a modular hardware control system tailored for industrial applications. The system presented is designed with electrical protection, guaranteeing the reliable operation of its modules in the presence of various field noises and external disturbances. The modular architecture comprises a principal module (mP) and dedicated expansion modules (mEXs). The principal module serves as the network administrator and facilitates interaction with production and control processes. The mEXs are equipped with sensors, conditioning circuits, analog-to-digital converters, and digital signal processing capabilities. The mEX’s primary function is to acquire local processing field signals and ensure their reliable transmission to the mP. Two specific mEXs were developed for industrial environments: an electrical signal expansion module (mSE) and the vibration signals expansion module (mSV). The EtherCAT protocol serves as a means of communication between the modules, fostering deterministic and real-time interactions while also simplifying the integration and replacement of modules within the modular architecture. The proposed system incorporates local and distributed processing in which data acquisition, processing, and data analysis are carried out closer to where data are generated. Locally processing the acquired data close to the production in the mEX increases the mP availability and network reliability. For the local processing, feature extraction algorithms were developed on the mEX based on a Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) algorithm and a curve-fitting algorithm that accurately represents a given FFT curve by significantly reducing the amount of data that needs to be transmitted over the mP. The proposed system offers a promising solution to use computational intelligence methodologies and meet the growing need for a modular industrial control system with reliable local data processing to reach a smart industry. The case study of acquiring and processing vibration signals from a real cement ball mill showed a good capacity for processing data and reducing the amount of data.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Developments in Automatic Control and Systems Engineering)
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Open AccessFeature PaperArticle
Optimal Design of a Renewable-Energy-Driven Integrated Cooling–Freshwater Cogeneration System
by
Iman Janghorban Esfahani and Pouya Ifaei
Processes 2024, 12(6), 1164; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr12061164 - 5 Jun 2024
Abstract
This study presents a novel approach that will address escalating demands for water and cooling in regions vulnerable to climate change through the proposal of an optimal integrated cooling–freshwater cogeneration system powered by renewable energy sources. Comprising three subsystems (integrated multi-effect evaporation distillation,
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This study presents a novel approach that will address escalating demands for water and cooling in regions vulnerable to climate change through the proposal of an optimal integrated cooling–freshwater cogeneration system powered by renewable energy sources. Comprising three subsystems (integrated multi-effect evaporation distillation, absorption heat pump, and vapor compression refrigeration (MAV); renewable energy unit incorporating solar panels, wind turbines, batteries, and hydrogen facilities (RHP/BH); and combined heat and power (CHP)), the system aims to produce both cooling and freshwater. By recovering cooling from combined desalination and refrigeration subsystems to chill the air taken into the gas turbine compressor, the system maximizes efficiency. Through the recovery of waste heat and employing an integrated thermo-environ-economic framework, a novel objective function, termed modified total annual cost (MTAC), is introduced for optimization. Using a genetic algorithm, parametric iterative optimization minimizes the MTAC. The results reveal that under optimum conditions, the MAV, RHP/BH, and CHP subsystems account for 67%, 58%, and 100% of total annual, exergy destruction, and environmental costs, respectively. Notably, the system exhibits lower sensitivity to fuel prices than renewable energy sources, suggesting a need for future research that will incorporate dynamic product prices and greater fuel consumption to produce enhanced operational robustness.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Optimal Design for Renewable Power Systems)
Open AccessArticle
Multi-Objective Optimisation of Injection Moulding Process for Dashboard Using Genetic Algorithm and Type-2 Fuzzy Neural Network
by
Mohammad Reza Chalak Qazani, Mehdi Moayyedian, Parisa Jourabchi Amirkhizi, Mohsen Hedayati-Dezfooli, Ahmed Abdalmonem, Ahmad Alsmadi and Furqan Alam
Processes 2024, 12(6), 1163; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr12061163 - 5 Jun 2024
Abstract
This study examines the use of injection moulding to evaluate mechanical properties in plastic products, such as shear and residual stresses. Key process variables like melt temperature, mould temperature, hold pressure duration, and pure hold duration are meticulously chosen for study. A full
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This study examines the use of injection moulding to evaluate mechanical properties in plastic products, such as shear and residual stresses. Key process variables like melt temperature, mould temperature, hold pressure duration, and pure hold duration are meticulously chosen for study. A full factorial experiment design is utilised to determine the best settings. These variables notably influence the end product’s physical and mechanical properties. Computational techniques, like the finite element method, are used to analyse behaviours based on varied input parameters. A CAD model of a dashboard part is incorporated into a finite element analysis to measure shear and residual stresses. Four specific parameters from the injection moulding process are subjected to an in-depth experimental design. It is worth noting that the injection moulding process does not incorporate a type-2 fuzzy neural network (T2FNN). However, in this particular investigation, T2FNN was employed to replicate the mechanical stress model associated with dashboard injection moulding. Its purpose was to estimate shear and residual stress levels. Additionally, the multi-objective genetic algorithm (MOGA) was utilised to extract the most optimal parameters for the injection moulding process, aiming to minimise shear and residual stress and thereby increase the resistance of the final product. The proposed model was developed and implemented using MATLAB software. A Pareto front was derived from the MOGA by employing the T2FNN within the process, identifying fourteen optimal solutions.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Green Manufacturing and Optimization)
Open AccessArticle
Study on the Application of Finite Difference in Geological Mine Fault Groups: A Case Study
by
Jianbo Yuan, Chao Wang, Zhigang Liu, Jingchao Lyu, Yajun Lu, Wuchao You and Jiazheng Yan
Processes 2024, 12(6), 1162; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr12061162 - 5 Jun 2024
Abstract
Fault structures can cause a bad mining environment and increase the stress of surrounding coal pillar faults. The study investigates the stress evolution characteristics within fault structure groups and their surrounding coal pillars and explores the extent to which these fault structure groups
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Fault structures can cause a bad mining environment and increase the stress of surrounding coal pillar faults. The study investigates the stress evolution characteristics within fault structure groups and their surrounding coal pillars and explores the extent to which these fault structure groups influence the stress distribution in coal pillars. Based on three-dimensional modeling technology, a transparent geological model of the geological environment of fault structure groups was constructed and finite difference software was used to generate a numerical simulation model. Two survey lines and four survey points were arranged to analyze the stress distribution of a coal pillar fault. The results show that the fault structure groups have obvious stress barrier effects. There is a 35 m stress reduction zone in the hanging wall of the fault and a 30 m stress increase zone in the footwall of the fault. Both FL-1 and FL-3 faults have a stress barrier effect in the hanging wall. The obvious stress increases in the footwall of the fault are 37.7 MPa and 33.5 MPa, respectively. The stress of the FL-2 fault as a whole appears to be a more obvious superposition at the end of mining, and the peak stress reaches 41.5 MPa.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Security Intelligent Monitoring and Big Data Utilization in Coal Mining Process)
Open AccessFeature PaperArticle
Catalytic Dehydrogenation on Ultradisperse Sn-Promoted Ir Catalysts Supported on MgAl2O4 Prepared by Different Techniques
by
Sergio de Miguel, Jayson Fals, Viviana Benitez, Catherine Especel, Florence Epron and Sonia Bocanegra
Processes 2024, 12(6), 1161; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr12061161 - 5 Jun 2024
Abstract
Ir and IrSn catalysts with different Sn contents (0.5, 0.7 and 0.9 wt%) were prepared using MgAl2O4 supports synthesized using two different techniques (the citrate–nitrate combustion and coprecipitation methods). Both supports, with a spinel structure, presented low acidity and good
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Ir and IrSn catalysts with different Sn contents (0.5, 0.7 and 0.9 wt%) were prepared using MgAl2O4 supports synthesized using two different techniques (the citrate–nitrate combustion and coprecipitation methods). Both supports, with a spinel structure, presented low acidity and good textural properties. However, the support prepared by coprecipitation had higher specific surface area and pore volume than the one prepared by combustion, which would favor the dispersion of the metals to be deposited. Likewise, during the preparation of the catalytic materials, a very good interaction was achieved between the metals and both supports, which was confirmed by the presence of sub-nanometer atomic clusters in the mono- and bimetallic catalysts. Regarding the catalytic properties, while the monometallic Ir/MgAl2O4 samples lead to a very low conversion of n-butane and a selectivity towards hydrogenolysis products, the addition of Sn to Ir increases the conversion, decreases hydrogenolysis and therefore sharply increases the selectivity towards the different butenes. Catalysts with higher Sn loadings present better catalytic behavior. One of the roles of the Sn promoter would be to geometrically modify the Ir clusters, drastically decreasing the hydrogenolytic activity. This effect, added to the strong electronic modification of the Ir sites by the action of Sn, with probable Ir-Sn alloy formation, is responsible for the high catalytic performance of these bimetallic catalysts.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Heterogeneous Catalysis in Chemical and Petrochemical Processes)
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